Introduction

1.  Analena Hope Hassberg, “Nurturing the Revolution: The Black Panther Party and the Early Seeds of the Food Justice Movement,” in Black Food Matters: Racial Justice in the Wake of Food Justice, ed. Ashanté M. Reese and Hanna Garth (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 2020), 88, https://ezproxy.dalton.org:2066/book/78623. 

2.  Hassberg, “Nurturing the Revolution,” 88.

3.  Black Panther Party Free Breakfast Program. Berkeley, CA: Black Panther Party National Headquarters, n.d. http://freedomarchives.org/Documents/Finder/DOC513_scans/BPP_General/513.BPP.Free.Breakfast.donations.pdf.

4.  Monica M. White, “A Pig and a Garden: Fannie Lou Hamer’s Freedom Farm Cooperative,” in Freedom Farmers: Agricultural Resistance and the Black Freedom Movement (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2018), 71-72, https://ezproxy.dalton.org:2066/chapter/2227749.

5.  White, “A Pig and a Garden,” 76.

6.  White, “A Pig and a Garden,” 76-77.

7.  On the Question of Sexism within the Black Panther Party,” Black Panther Party General, Freedom Archives, freedomarchives.org/Documents/Finder/DOC513_scans/BPP_Women/513.BPP.women.panther.sisters.womens.liberation.1969.pdf.  

The Black Matriarch and Black Foodways

1.  Michael W. Twitty, “The Queen,” in The Cooking Gene: A Journey Through African American Culinary History in the Old South (New York, NY: HarperCollins, 2017), 249.

2.  Twitty, “The Queen,” 244.

3.  Psyche A. Williams-Forson, Building Houses out of Chicken Legs: Black Women, Food, and Power (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 16.

4.  Marybeth Gasman, “Swept under the Rug? A Historiography of Gender and Black Colleges.” American Educational Research Journal 44, no. 4 (2007): 764, www.jstor.org/stable/30069414. 

5.  Chrissy Lutz and Dawn Herd-Clark, “‘No One Was on Their Own’: Sociability among Rural African American Women in Middle Georgia during the Interwar Years,” Agricultural History 93, no. 3 (Summer 2019): 445, https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3098/ah.2019.093.3.437. 

6.  Angela Davis, “Reflections on the Black Woman’s Role in the Community of Slaves,” The Massachusetts Review 13, no. 1/2 (Winter/Spring 1972): 87, https://www.jstor.org/stable/25088201.

7.  Williams-Forson, Building Houses, 92; “Psyche Williams-Forson: African-American Food Culture (Full),” video, 33:17, YouTube, posted by Food and Society Video Project, April 17, 2015, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jxF3kvOzBSw.8.  Davis, “Reflections on the Black Woman’s Role,” 82.

The Mammy Stereotype and Aunt Jemima 

1.  Maurice M. Manring, “Aunt Jemima Explained: The Old South, the Absent Mistress, and the Slave in a Box,” Southern Cultures 2, no. 1 (Fall 1995): 21, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26235388.

2.  Manring, “Aunt Jemima Explained,” 22. 

3.  Manring, “Aunt Jemima Explained,” 20-21. 

4.  Manring, “Aunt Jemima Explained,” 22.

5.  Manring, “Aunt Jemima Explained,” 22.  

6.  Manring, “Aunt Jemima Explained,” 24. 

7.  Manring, “Aunt Jemima Explained,” 25.  

8.  Manring, “Aunt Jemima Explained,” 25.  

9.  Manring, “Aunt Jemima Explained,” 26. 

10. “Vintage Old 1950’s Aunt Jemima Pancakes Commercial 1959.” Video, 1:11. YouTube. Posted by Vintage Fanatic, June 4, 2013. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=beOxrAt2L4w.

11.  Manring, “Aunt Jemima Explained,” 29.  

12.  Quaker Oats Company. Aunt Jemima’s Pancakes. 1927. Image. https://repository.duke.edu/dc/protfam/prfad02253.

13.  Aunt Jemima Mill Company, Advertisement for Aunt Jemima’s Pancake Flour, 1916, photograph, https://www.jstor.org/stable/community.13894117.14.  Aunt Jemima Salt Shaker, photograph, https://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/search/object/nmah_1418101; Aunt Jemima Syrup Bottle. Photograph. https://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/search/object/nmah_1297790.

Black Women & The Black Panther Party’s Free Breakfast Program (1969 – 1980)

1.  Analena Hope Hassberg, “Nurturing the Revolution: The Black Panther Party and the Early Seeds of the Food Justice Movement,” in Black Food Matters: Racial Justice in the Wake of Food Justice, ed. Ashanté M. Reese and Hanna Garth (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 2020), 83, https://ezproxy.dalton.org:2066/book/78623.   

2.  The Black Panther Black Community News Service (San Francisco, CA), May 15, 1967, 3, https://www.marxists.org/history/usa/pubs/black-panther/01n02-May%2015%201967.pdf.  

3.  Hassberg, “Nurturing the Revolution,” 84.  

4.  Hassberg, “Nurturing the Revolution,” 87-88.   

5.  Hassberg, “Nurturing the Revolution,” 88.  

6.  Black Panther Party Free Breakfast Program (Berkeley, CA: Black Panther Party National Headquarters, n.d.), http://freedomarchives.org/Documents/Finder/DOC513_scans/BPP_General/513.BPP.Free.Breakfast.donations.pdf.

7.  Hassberg, “Nurturing the Revolution,” 89. 

8.  Antwanisha Alameen-Shavers, “The Woman Question: Gender Dynamics within the Black Panther Party,” Spectrum: A Journal on Black Men 5, no. 1 (Fall 2016): 51, https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/spectrum.5.1.03.  

9.  Alameen-Shavers, “The Woman Question,” 45. 

10. Alameen-Shavers, “The Woman Question,” 46.  

11. “On the Question of Sexism within the Black Panther Party,” Black Panther Party General, Freedom Archives, freedomarchives.org/Documents/Finder/DOC513_scans/BPP_Women/513.BPP.women.panther.sisters.womens.liberation.1969.pdf. 

12.  Safiya Asya Bukhari, “Coming of Age: A Black Revolutionary,” Social Justice 30, no. 2 (2003): 9-10, https://www.jstor.org/stable/29768180. 

13.  Bukhari, “Coming of Age,” 10.

14.  Bukhari, “Coming of Age,” 11.

Fannie Lou Hamer and the Freedom Farm Cooperative (1967 – 1976)

1.  Waymon R. Hinson and Edward Robinson, “‘We Didn’t Get Nothing:’ The Plight of Black Farmers,” Journal of African American Studies 12, no. 3 (September 2008): 283, https://www.jstor.org/stable/41819175.  

2.  Hinson and Robinson, “‘We Didn’t Get Nothing’,” 286.  

3.  Hinson and Robinson, “‘We Didn’t Get Nothing’,” 288. 

4.  Hinson and Robinson, “‘We Didn’t Get Nothing’,” 289. 

5.  Hinson and Robinson, “‘We Didn’t Get Nothing’,” 290. 

6.  Hinson and Robinson, “‘We Didn’t Get Nothing’,” 291. 

7.  Hinson and Robinson, “‘We Didn’t Get Nothing’,” 291; 293. 

8.  Mark Bittman, “Black Farmers May Finally Get the Help They Deserve,” The New York Times (New York, NY), March 4, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/04/opinion/black-farmers-covid-relief.html?searchResultPosition=1.

9.  Hinson and Robinson, “‘We Didn’t Get Nothing’,” 295; “Our Mission,” Land Loss Prevention Project, https://www.landloss.org/. 

10.  Monica M. White, “A Pig and a Garden: Fannie Lou Hamer’s Freedom Farm Cooperative,” in Freedom Farmers: Agricultural Resistance and the Black Freedom Movement (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2018), 66, https://ezproxy.dalton.org:2066/chapter/2227749.

11.  “Oral History Interview with Fannie Lou Hamer, African-American, Woman, FDP: Member of Ex Com., 0491, Ruleville, Mississippi. 0491,” audio, 32:08, Stanford Oral History Collections, 1965, https://exhibits.stanford.edu/oral-history/catalog/zb317wv2717. 

12.  White, “A Pig and a Garden,” 66. 

13.  “Oral History Interview,” audio. 

14.  Barbara Ransby, “Mississippi Goddamn: Fighting for Freedom in the Belly of the Beast of Southern Racism,” in Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement: A Radical Democratic Vision (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 308. 

15.  Ransby, “Mississippi Goddamn,” 308; White, “A Pig and a Garden,” 67. 

16.  White, “A Pig and a Garden,” 68.  

17.  White, “A Pig and a Garden,” 68.   

18.  White, “A Pig and a Garden,” 69.

19.  White, “A Pig and a Garden,” 70.  

20.  White, “A Pig and a Garden,” 72.

21.  White, “A Pig and a Garden,” 73. 

22.  White, “A Pig and a Garden,” 76.

23.  White, “A Pig and a Garden,” 75-78. 

24.  United States Census Bureau, 1960 Census: Population, Supplementary Reports: Per Capita and Median Family Income in 1959, for States, Standard Metropolitan Areas, and Counties, 23, July 30, 1965, https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1960/pc-s1-supplementary-reports/pc-s1-48.pdf.

25.  White, “A Pig and a Garden,” 81. 

26.  White, “A Pig and a Garden,” 71.  

27.  White, “A Pig and a Garden,” 72.  

28.  White, “A Pig and a Garden,” 85.

Contemporary Black Food Justice and Female Food Activists

1. Young Lords Party, Palante: Voices and Photographs of the Young Lords, 1969-1971, illus. Michael Abramson (Chicago, IL: Haymarket Books, 2011), 4.

2. Young Lords Party, Palante, 45.

3. Analena Hope Hassberg, “Nurturing the Revolution: The Black Panther Party and the Early Seeds of the Food Justice Movement,” in Black Food Matters: Racial Justice in the Wake of Food Justice, ed. Ashanté M. Reese and Hanna Garth (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 2020), 91, https://ezproxy.dalton.org:2066/book/78623. 

4. “Leah Penniman,” Soul Fire Farm, https://www.soulfirefarm.org/meet-the-farmers/leah-penniman/.

5.  Leah Penniman, “Black Land Matters,” introduction to Farming While Black: Soul Fire Farm’s Practical Guide to Liberation on the Land (White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green Publishing, 2018), 3-4; Penniman prefers the term “food apartheid” over “food desert,” as she says this more explicitly implies that disparities in the food system are human created. 

6. Penniman, “Black Land Matters,” introduction, 4-5. 

7.  Penniman, “Black Land Matters,” introduction, 5.  

8. Penniman, “Black Land Matters,” introduction, 6.  

9. “Ask a Sista Farmer,” Soul Fire Farm, https://www.soulfirefarm.org/food-sovereignty-education/ask-a-sista-farmer/.

10. “UJIMA: Food Sovereignty, Fannie Lou Hamer & How to Make Kraut!,” video, 13:40, YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EootIwY56g0.

11.  Penniman, “Black Land Matters,” introduction, 3.  

12. Amanda Rosa, “See That Fridge on the Sidewalk? It’s Full of Free Food,” New York Times (New York, NY), July 8, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/08/nyregion/free-food-fridge-nyc.html.

13.  Jazmin Johnson, interview by the author, The Dalton School, New York City, NY, December 7, 2021.

14.  Johnson, interview by the author. 

15.  Johnson, interview by the author. 

16.  Johnson, interview by the author. 

17.  Johnson, interview by the author; “NYC Community Fridges,” NYC Community Fridge Mapping Project, https://nycfridge.com/.  

18.  Hassberg, “Nurturing the Revolution,” 97.  

19.  Johnson, interview by the author. 

20. Marcia Chatelain, “Black Women’s Food Writing and the Archive of Black Women’s History,” in Dethroning the Deceitful Pork Chop: Rethinking African American Foodways from Slavery to Obama, ed. Jennifer Jensen Wallach (Fayetteville, AR: University of Arkansas Press, 2015), 32, https://muse.jhu.edu/book/41285.

21.  Chatelain, “Black Women’s Food Writing,” 41. 

22. Chatelain, “Black Women’s Food Writing,” 43.  

23. Todd Kliman, “Black and White and Red All Over,” Washington City Paper (Washington, DC), April 2, 2004, https://washingtoncitypaper.com/article/249478/black-and-white-and-red-all-over/.

24. Chatelain, “Black Women’s Food Writing,” 44.