Rome Project

Military Resources

SAMH: The Society for Ancient Military Historians
“The Society of Ancient Military Historians is an organization dedicated to the promotion of the study of warfare in the Ancient World. Members sponsor and contribute to the Mozilla Firefox Start Page publication of our newsletter, Res Militares. Our leadership works with and within the American Philological Association to arrange contact between our members and within the larger academic community.”

MAVORS: Institute for Ancient Military History
“The MAVORS-Institute is a not-for-profit academic research institution, dedicated to the study of all aspects related to ancient armies, to furthering scientific research and to supporting scholars in the field of Ancient Military History.”

Roman Army School
“Our aims are to encourage an interest in the Roman army and to share our knowledge. We do this by organizing a conference with the very best lecturers we can find.”.

Annotated Chronology of Military Event
1996, 1997, 1998, 1999 Copyright. Richard R. Orsinger “. . . [T]hat the great deeds of men may not be forgotten . . . and especially, the causes of the war between them.”

Imperial Battle Map Index by Hugh Elton, Cartography by Christos Nüssli
Courtesy of the De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors .

Imperial Battle Description Index by Hugh Elton
Courtesy of the De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors .

The Roman Army: A Bibliography
A listing of works relevant to the study of Roman warfare provided by John Paul Adams California State University Northridge

The Ancient Warfare Articles of Smith’s Dictionary
William Smith, D.C.L., LL.D.: A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities John Murray, London, 1875. “This index page collects the articles in Smith’s Dictionary on ancient warfare: mostly the Roman army.” Courtesy of LacusCurtius copyright © William P. Thayer 2002.

Roman Military Development in the Fourth Century BC.
“This paper will examine and discuss the development of Roman military equipment and battlefield tactics during the fourth century BC.1 In order to draw a conclusion on the Roman military during this period it is necessary to survey the range of military equipment likely to have been in use at this time across the entire Italian peninsula.” By Alastair Lumsden. Courtesy of Academia.edu.

The Homogenisation of Military Equipment Under the Roman Republic
Michael T. Burns. Institute of Archaeology, University College London. Courtesy of Digressus: The Internet Journal of the Classical World, Volume 6 (2006).

The Roman Army in Hispania. An Archaeological Guide
Fernando Quesada Sanz- Eduardo Kavanagh de Prado.”The Classic sites for the study of the Roman Republican Army and Weapons: Recent Reexamination of Old Finds and New Research.

The Military Affairs of Ancient Rome & Roman Art of War in Caesar’s Time Roman Army
By Lt. Col.S. G. Brady ©1947 The Military Service Publishing Company. Copyright Expired Courtesy of Mavors: Institute for Ancient Military History.

The Roman Army: During The Late Roman Republic
Artillery & Other Weapons, Camps, Discipline, The Men & Their Equipment, On the March, Organization of the Army, Scouts & Spies, Tactics in Battle, Training and Weapons–Comparative Ranges. Courtesy of Rich Hamper.

The Roman Army in the Late Republic and Early Empire
“The following information is intended to give a generic picture of military organization, armor, weaponry, etc. during the late Republic and early Empire.” Courtesy of Barbara F. McManus, The College of New Rochelle.

Roman Imperial Army, : R. Bagnall et al, Encyclopedia of Ancient History
Uploaded by M. A. Speidel. Courtesy of Academia.edu.

The Roman Army, Part II
“…information on legionary armor, auxiliary troops, army activities and pay, and punishments and rewards.” Courtesy of Barbara F. McManus, The College of New Rochelle.

Maniple Army Formation ‘Triplex Acies’ in Action
Animation by Realm of History : The Future Lies in the Past.

Models of the Roman Legion By Gary Brueggeman
“The purpose of the models presented here is to help visualize the legion. The models have been built from data from a variety of experts, many of whom do not agree with each other. The hope is that the models themselves may serve as a tool to clarify questions, identify solutions which are more or less likely, and lead to a further refinement of knowledge about the legion.”.

Virtual Legion: Exploring the Army of Imperial Rome
“Welcome to Virtual Legion, an interactive historical reference to the legions of Imperial Rome of the First Century AD. Press enter to begin.”.

The Roman Army in Caerleon
An excellent introduction to the Roman forces of the Principate, Includes video clips of Roman re-enactors.

Visually Reconstructed Evolution Of The Ancient Roman Soldier From 8th Century BC To 3rd Century AD
Courtesy of the Realm of Hstory: The Future lies in the Past

Being a Soldier in the Roman Imperial Army-Expectations and Responses
By M. Speidel. Courtesy of Academia.edu.

The Roman Amy in Detail: The Contubernium –tent-party or barrack room ?
By D. B. Campbell. Courtesy of Academia.edu.

Specialization and Promotion in the Roman Imperial Army
By M. A. Speidel. Heer und Herrschaft im Römischen Reich der Hohen Kaiserzeit Stuttgart 2009, 283-304. Courtesy of Academia.edu.

The Regular Roman Auxiliary Regiments formed from the Provinces of Asia Minor.
By Julian Bennett Anatolica XXXVII, 2011. “Knowing the recruitment patterns and the areas of service for the auxilia, the auxiliary units of the Roman Imperial Army, helps us better understand overall developments in Roman strategicthinking. In this regard the establishment of auxiliary units from the provinces of Asia Minor is ofinterest in pointing to Roman military thought and practice with regard to the Eastern provinces as a whole.”.

Alpine Regiments of the Roman Army
The Alpine regiments of the Roman army were those auxiliary units of the army that were originally raised in the Alpine provinces of the Roman Empire: Tres Alpes, Raetia and Noricum. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Roman Army Pay Scales
M. A. Speidel, Heer und Herrschaft im Römischen Reich der Hohen Kaiserzeit, Stuttgart 2009, 394-380. Courtesy of Mavors Institute for Ancient Military History.

RedRampant.com
“Historical references such as: Uniform and Armor Guides, Shield Patterns, Battle Descriptions, Maps and More!”

“Victori: The Roman Military
Victori is Latin for “The Conquerors.” The growth of the Republic, and the advent and expansion of the Empire were greatly dependent on Rome’s military might. For centuries it was the most fearsome fighting force on the western hemisphere, eventually bringing most of Europe, the Middle East, and northern Africa under the control of Rome. This feat required massive supply lines, training, equipment, strategy, and strong leaders. This web site is designed to help people interested in Roman history, particularly its military. Explore, and marvel at the wonder of efficiency, precision, and force that was the Roman Army!”

Roman Military
“The Roman Legion, the ultimate military machine of the ancient world, was the catalyst that spread Roman conquest and civilization throughout the known world. The core of the Roman legion consisted of heavily armored infantry.” Excerpted from UNRV History.

Roma Victrix: Military Romae History
Excellent overview of Roman military forces. Especially noteworthy is the use of photographs of artifacts and sculptural reliefs to illustrate topics that are covered in the site. Copyright © 2005-2016. All Rights Reserved.

Germani Corporis Custodes
Courtesy of Weapons and Warfare: History and Hardware of Warfare

Praetorian Guard
Courtesy of Wikipedia.

Cohortes Urbanus
By Mark Cartwright. Courtesy of Ancient History Encyclopedia.

Imperial Roman Lanciarii; especially those of the 3rd century AD: what were they?
By Luke Ueda-Sarson

The Roman Military Museum
Excerpted from www.imperiumromanum.info Roman Numismatics, Art, History and Archeology.

Roman Military Glossary
Excerpted from Roman-Britain.ORG.

Roman Military Standards
Excerpted from Legion XXIV Media Atlantia

The Military Standards of the Roman Legions: Symbolic objects of ideology, veneration and belief.
By Jessica A Biling, Excerpted from the Oxford Handbook of Roman Epigraphy, Chapter 16. Courtesy of Academic.edu.

Roman military diploma
Courtesy of Wikipedia

Roman military diplomas On-Line
Excerpted from Roman Numismatic Gallery.

Roman Cavalry
Research on Roman Cavalry. Excerpted from Comitatus.

Roman Cavalry Units and Rank
Courtesy of RedRampant.com.

Evidence for horse armour in the Roman army and the use of chamfrons by the Roman Cavalry.
By Sebastian Schuckeit. Courtesy of academia.edu.

Bronze studs from Roman Spain
“Reconstruction of the headstall of the harness deposited in the tomb at Vega Baja (Toledo)” Journal of Roman Equipment Studies, Volume 7 (1996).

Roman Military Equipment: Horse Harnesses and Armour
Examples of the equipment of both the legionary cavalry as well as the auxiliary cavalry (alae). Excerpted from the Roman Military Museum www.romanlegions.info.

Cavalry Equipment of the Roman Army in the First Century A. D.
By M. C. Bishop. Originally published in Coulston, J.C. (ed.) 1988: Military Equipment and the Identity of Roman Soldiers. Proceedings of the Fourth Roman Military Equipment Conference, BAR International Series 394, Oxford

On the Cavalry Commander By Xenophon
Courtesy of the Perseus Project at Tufts University.

Epona in the Military
Here is a list of all the military units who are known (from inscriptions), or assumed (e.g. from a fort where a single unit was stationed) to have made dedications to Epona.

The Mysterious Absence of Stables at Roman Cavalry Forts
“How recent archaeological excavations on Hadrian’s Wall have revealed why it has always been so difficult to discover where Roman soldiers kept their horses.”. Courtesy of English Heritage.org.

Roman Cavalry: Overview
Excerpted from The Roman Army by Gary Brueggeman. (see also the following articles on the site: Cavalry: Standard Model, Cavalry: Improved Model, Cavalry: Turmae Fighting Model , Cavalry Charging Infantry.

The ‘Equites Legionis’ and the Roman Cavalry
By Dr. Stefan Zehetner. Courtesy of Brewminate.

Cataphracts and Clibarnarii in the Anciet World
By Invictus. Courtesy of All Empires.

Military Medicos
“Before Hellenistic influence, the Roman legion did not contain any medical services. The common practice among professional generals.” Courtesy of the University of Virginia Health Science Library.

Medicus Romanus: Roman Medicine in the Ancient World
“This site presents the interesting ancient medicine and its reenactment as a Roman army doctor in modern times.” In English and German.

Aeneas Tacitus: Siege Defense
“I transcribed this Web edition from a 1986 reprint of the Loeb Classical Library volume containing Aeneas Tacticus, Asclepiodotus and Onasander, Greek text and facing English translation: Harvard University Press, 1928. The translations are by the Illinois Greek Club.” Courtesy of LacusCurtius copyright © William P. Thayer 2002.

Onasander: Straegikos
“I transcribed this Web edition from a 1986 reprint of the Loeb Classical Library volume containing Aeneas Tacticus, Onasander and Onasander, Greek text and facing English translation: Harvard University Press, 1928. The translations are by the Illinois Greek Club. Courtesy of LacusCurtius copyright © William P. Thayer 2002.

Polybius: The Histories
Loeb Classical library, 6 volumes and facing English translation: Harvard University Press, 1922 thru 1927. Translation by W. R. Paton. Courtesy of LacusCurtius copyright © William P. Thayer 2002.

Frontini: Strategemata
In Latin. Courtesy of the Latin library.

Frontini: Strategemata
The complete Latin text and English translation by Charles E. Bennett, published by Loeb, 1925. Courtesy of LacusCurtius copyright © William P. Thayer 2002..

Cassius Dio: Roman History
Loeb Classical Library, 9 volumes, Greek texts and facing English translation: Harvard University Press, 1914 thru 1927. Translation by Earnest Cary. Courtesy of LacusCurtius copyright © William P. Thayer 2002.

Specialisation and Promotion in the Roman Imperial Army.
M. A. Speidel, Heer und Herrschaft im Römischen Reich der Hohen Kaiserzeit, Stuttgart 2009, 283-304. Courtesy of Mavors Institute for Ancient Military History.

Letters Written by Roman Soldiers.
Courtesy of John Paul Adams, Department of Modern and Classical Languages & Literatures, CSUN.

1,800-Year Old Letter Written By A Roman Legionary Strikes A Poignant Note. Classical Languages & Literatures.
Courtesy of Realm of History: The Future lies in the Past.

Roman Epigraphy-Roman Army
Uploaded by M. A. Speidel, Excerpted from the Oxford Handbook of Roman Epigraphy, Chapter 16.

Roman Military Inscriptions from Siscia: An Overview
By Ivan Radman-Livaja / Vlatka Vukelić.Proceedings of the 22nd International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies, Ruse, Bulgaria, September 2012.

The Lambaesis Inscription
The fragmentary text of a speech, delivered at the legionary base of Lambaesis by the emperor Hadrian to his soldiers. Originally published as “Hadrian and his Soldiers. The Lambaesis Inscription”, in: Core of the Legions. The Roman Imperial Centuria=Ancient Warfare Special 2010).All content copyright ©1995–2018 Livius.org. All rights reserved.

Arms and Armour of the Etruscan
Photographs of artifacts in the Vatican Collection.

On the types of the Etruscan Helmets
By Periklis Deligiannis. Delving into History.

Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies.
The Journal (ISSN 09613684) is dedicated to the Study of the Weapons, Armour, and Military Fittings of the Armies and Enemies of Rome and Byzantium. It covers all aspects of the subject and its source material – archaeological, literary, sub-literary, iconographic/representational, and experimental.

ROMEC: The Roman Military Equipment Conference.
“The first Roman Military Equipment Research Seminar was held in the Department of Ancient History and Classical Archaeology (now, sadly, defunct) at the University of Sheffield (GB) in 1983. It has since grown and now visits various international venues, but still retains the same goals as that first seminar: to further the study of Roman military equipment with contributions from professional or amateur, academic or re-enactor, archaeologist or historian.”.

Arma
“Arma is the newsletter of the Roman Military Equipment Conference (ROMEC) which, since 1983, has met to discuss the arms, armour, and military fittings of the Roman army. The proceedings of these volumes have been published (four of them by British Archaeological Reports) but Arma now provides an opportunity for the publication of short notes on recent finds, news of relevant publications, and a running bibliography of academic articles published on the subject since 1980. The newsletter also supplies details about forthcoming events, including of course the next ROMEC. Of interest to specialists and enthusiasts alike, as well as unit and museum staff, and academics working in related fields, Arma offers the chance to keep up-to-date with Roman military equipment studies.”.

Legio XX Online Handbook for Legionaries
“The Online Handbook has grown far beyond the original printed version, and is continually being updated. Illustrations are added whenever possible. More pictures can be found elsewhere on the Legion website (particularly the Photos and Roman Days pages), on various linked sites, and in the books in our Bibliography. You may feel free to download, copy, or print any part of our Handbook, as long as you give credit where credit is due and do not attempt to use it for profit.” Topics covered Tunic, Caligae, Cloak, Belt, Helmets, Segmentata, Hamata, Squamata, Subarmalis, Scutum, Gladius, Pilum, Pugio, Packs, Mess Gear, Tools, Crests, Drill, Leatherworking and Armoring.

The Arms of the Romans
By Michel Feugère, Translated from the French by David G. Smith, BA, FRNS. Courtesy of academia.edu.

Loricae Romanae
David Pearson. “This set of pages presents images and information about the construction, decoration and function of Imperial cuirasses of the first two centuries A.D. and the problems in dealing with archaeological and iconographic evidence.”.

The Roman Military Museum https://www.academia.edu/1027222/The_Newstead_lorica_segmentata
Part of the RNG Museum Platform.

The Newstead ‘lorica segmentata by M.C. Bishop
Excerpted from the Journal of Roman Military Equipment Volume 10, 1999.

Notes on the Kalkriese Style Lorica Segmentata
“Archeological finds from the Teutoberg Forest Battle site at Kalkriese, Germany have made it clear that the Corbridge lorica segmentata was not the earliest form of segmented armor.Ê Kalkriese yielded a complete breastplate and numerous hinged fittings, all of which date to the defeat of Varus in 9 AD.” Excerpted from the Legio XX Online Handbook.

Roman armour of unique significance discovered
Hundreds of items of Roman armour thought to date from around the time of the Emperor Hadrian’s visit to Britain in June 122 AD have been uncovered on the site of a Roman fort in Carlisle. Courtesy of the Royal Armouries News 4 May 2001.

A Critical Review of the Bishop Version 1.01 Newstead Lorica Segmentata in the Wake of a Prototype’ Creation.
by Dr. L. Arik Greenberg, PhD. Courtesy of the Legion Six Historical Foundation, Inc.

Roman leather armor
“In the winter of 1925, University of Michigan excavators working at the site of Karanis in Egypt made a rare discovery: pieces of Roman armor made of leather.” Courtesy of University of Michigan Kelsey Museum of Archaeology.

The Manica in the Roman Army up to 150 AD.
Courtesy of the Roman Military Research Society.

Shield shapes of the auxiliary soldier. (Scutum forma milites auxiliaribus).
Courtesy of the Roman Military Research Society.

The Roman Sword in the Republican Period and After.
“The sword was a mainstay of the Roman military throughout its history. It is my intention to describe the manufacture of swords, as well as the use of steel for sword blades. I will then describe the evolution of the sword within the Roman world in the Republican period and afterwards.”.

A late-republican gladius from the River Ljubljanica (Slovenia) by Janka Istenic
Excerpted from the Journal of Roman Military Equipment Volume 11, 2000.

Galea (Helmets)
Courtesy of Wikipedia.

Helmets & Armour of the Late Roman Army.
Excerpted from Comitatus.

Roman Infantry Helmets and Commemoration among Soldiers
By Brandon R.Olson. Vulcan (2013) Courtesy of Academic.edu.

On the Helmet Types of the Late Roman Cavalry
By Periklis Deligiannis. Delving into History.

Khud (Helmet).
By B. A. Litvinsky. Sassanian helmet, which later became a prototype for European helmets.

Late Roman Ridge Helmet
Courtesy of Wikipedia.

Weaponry of the Late Roman Army.
Excerpted from Comitatus.

Camp Kit of the Late Roman Army.
Excerpted from Comitatus.

The Dedication of Roman Weapons and Armor in Water as a Religious Ritual
“Through chance finds, formal excavations, looting, and dredging operations, several pieces of intact, fully functional Roman weapons and armor have been recovered from aquatic contexts in Gaul and Britain dating from the first century B.C.E to late first century C.E.” By Brandon Olson, Courtesy of The Collegiate Journal of Anthropology.

Dressed for the Occasion: Clothes and Context in the Roman Army
M. A. Speidel. Courtesy of Academia edu.

Tunic Color
Discussion of Roman military tunics excerpted from the Legio XX Online Handbook.

Caligae: Footwear of Rome’s Fighting Men
Courtesy of Rome Across Europe.

Roman Sandals: Military Footwear
Excerpted from the History of Sandals.

Boots
Courtesy of the Roman Recruit

Ancient Greek Artillery Technology from Catapults to the Architronio Canon
By Michael Lahanas.

Ancient Catapults
“Surviving Greek and Roman texts reveal the remarkable level of mathematical and engineering skill that went into the development of these early ballistic-missile launchers” by Werner Soedel and Vernard Foley Scientific American, March 1979, pp. 150 – 160.

Artillery and war machines
Concise overview by T E Rihll.

Beyond the Ivory Tower: The Sinews of War: Ancient Catapults
It is widely believed that in antiquity, theory and practice were on opposite sides of an unbridgeable divide and that science and technology were marginal to ancient society. Yet, a close look at the development of the catapult shows that such a divide did not exist in reality. Catapult engineers combined mathematical and engineering skills to create the most powerful weapons of their time. Both the engineers and their achievements were an important part of ancient society. By Serafina Cuomo. From Science 6 February 2004: Vol. 303. no. 5659, pp. 771 – 772.

Legion XXIV Catapulta Page
Excerpted from Legio XXIV web page.

Chapter XII: The Stringing and Tuning of Catapults
Vitruvius Pollio, The Ten Books on Architecture (ed. Morris Hicky Morgan) Book X. Perseus Digital Library.

Catapults in the Cohort: Did Rome’s auxiliaries have artillery ?
Ancient Warfare II.2 (2008). Courtesy of Academia.edu

Slinging.org: News and Information about the Ancient Weapon
“When I was first getting interested in this fascinating weapon, I couldn’t find much information on the web or in published material. I hope this website can be the definitive source for slinging related information and news. Of course, it needs a community of slingers to experiment and pass on their knowledge. With your help, we can rekindle the interest in this truly simple, effective, and historically significant weapon.”.

The Sling: The Gun of the Ancient world
Courtesy of Rome Across Europe.

Roman military diploma
Courtesy of Wikipedia.

Roman Military Diploma from Slavonski Brod Military
“The regional museum in Slavonski Brod, Croatia, managed to obtain an extremely valuable antique artefact in 1997. It is a Roman military diploma dating from the first century A.D, which had been discovered by chance, while recovering sand from the Sava river bed.” Courtesy of archive.is.

Roman Military Diploma On-Line: Part of the Roman Numismatic Gallery www.romancoins.info
“… auxiliary diplomas are major sources for our knowledge of the distribution of the roman auxiliary forces and the origin and names of their soldiers over the centuries. Findplaces of fragments tell us where the soldiers spent their retirement time. The names of the governors, consules, and commanders on diplomas are major sources to map career paths of individuals of the roman senatorial class and the equites (knights). Information on diplomas is especially useful, as it can be dated to the exact day. Most other major sources of such information, e.g. inscriptions on marble tombstones and donative monuments are in contrast not dated.”.

Roman Numismatic Gallery: The Roman Legions
“In this section of the museum the attempt is made to document each legion ever cited on a coin, and to give its main location from the period of Vespasianus – Diocletian. One has to consider however that the legions moved rather frequently to areas of need. A special section of this museum offers a table with the Location of Roman Legions for those interested in further details. In general the bulk of the roman army was based a) in the West in the Rhine region during the reign of Augustus, but shifted later to the Danube border, and b) on the Eastern frontier towards Persia.” Excerpted from Roman Numismatic Gallery.

The Location of Roman Legions from Caesar to ca. 300 AD is summarized in a table (pdf format, acrobat reader needed)
Excerpted from Roman Numismatic Gallery.

The Roman Limites: Compiled by Lynn Nelson
“The following bibliography consists of 335 relatively modern works on the Roman army, provinces, trade, manufacture, and western frontiers. It is not an exhaustive list. A large proporion of its entries refer to Roman Britain, and few works are provided that cover the the of the Later Empire.” Courtesy of the ORB: on-line Reference Book for Medieval studies.

Limes
Article excerpted from Livius: Articles on ancient history. (Almost) all articles by © Jona Lendering for Livius.Org, 2006 Revision: 8 September 2006.

Limes
Courtesy of Wikipedia.

Military activities on Rome’s frontier: The evidence of aerial archaeology
By Martin Gojda. xxx–xxx Vladimír Salač – Jan Bemmann (Hrsg.): Mitteleuropa zur Zeit Marbods. Praha – Bonn.

Limes
“The Roman Empire was one of the largest, most powerful, most splendid and most influential Empires the World has ever seen. Its impact and legacy still affects and shapes our modern world. The Frontiers symbolised the power, the ambition, the culture and life of the Empire, projecting Rome’s way of life to the world beyond. Today significant parts of the Frontiers of the Roman Empire in the United Kingdom and Germany are a UNESCO World Heritage Site, including some of the best preserved monuments to Rome’s past glory and decline – forts and signal stations, towns, ports and villas, walls and waterways, and amazing objects can all be found amongst some of Europe’s finest scenery”.

Frontiers of the Roman Empire
“The ‘Roman Limes’ represents the border line of the Roman Empire at its greatest extent in the 2nd century AD. It stretched over 5,000 km from the Atlantic coast of northern Britain, through Europe to the Black Sea, and from there to the Red Sea and across North Africa to the Atlantic coast. Courtesy of Unesco World Heritage Centre.

Army and Limes in the East
By Everett L. Wheeler. Courtesy of Academia. edu

Limes Tripolitanus
Article excerpted from Livius: Articles on ancient history. All content copyright © 1995–2017 Livius.org
. All rights reserved.

Colonia Augusta Praetoria and Augustus ‘ Cohortes Praetoriae
By R. A. van Royen. Talanta, Vol V, 1973.

The Chester Project: Reconstructing Roman Chester
“The Chester Project is a long term project to reconstruct, using computer graphics, the Roman Legionary fortress of the mid-third century AD, a time when the fortress was in it’s most complete.”

The Defences of Chester: Reconstructing the Defences of Chester
“Welcome to the homepage of a reconstruction project to support the recently published report on the defences of Chester. Although the project currently depicts the early and middle Roman periods, it will ultimately encompass all major periods up to the present, bearing in mind also that the term ‘defences’ tends to lose its relevance as we approach the present.

Signalling and the Design of the Gask Ridge System
“This paper attempts to describe the signalling arrangements of the Gask Ridge and the influence these may have had on the general layout of the system, in an effort to understand the purpose and context of the Roman line ” By D. J. Woolliscroft. Excerpted from the The Roman Gask Project.

Hygini Gromatici: De Munitionibus Castrorum
In Latin. Courtesy of Forum Romanum.

[Psuedo-] Hygini Gromatici: De Munitionibus Castrorum
In Latin. Courtesy of The Latin Library.

The Roman legions
“On this site, you will find an alphabetical and chronological catalogue of the imperial legions.” Each entry includes a brief history of the legion. Article by Jona Lendering ©

A catalogue of the Roman legions
A catalogue of Roman legions from Augustus up to and including the Notitia Dignitatem. Excerpted from Clive’s page.

Rome
“This site is intended to represent our Rome – a combat simulation society. This is not a historical Roman site, nor are we by definition a reenactment organization. What we are is more a celebration of what Rome was rather than an attempt to recreate it. If your objective is research, click here for our superb list of Roman resource links. If you’re conducting research on Roman sewage systems for your school paper, please understand that’s an example of a fascinating topic we care nothing about. We’re a fight club. But we thank you for your interest and enthusiasm in Rome, a topic so dear to us all.”

Ancient History Sourcebook: Livy: The Roman Way of Declaring War, c. 650 BCE
From: William Stearns Davis, ed., Readings in Ancient History: Illustrative Extracts from the Sources, 2 Vols. (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1912-13), Vol. II: Rome and the West, pp. 7-9. Courtesy of the Internet Ancient History Sourcebook.

Roman Imperial Army: Career Structures
Excerpted from the Illustrated History of the Roman Empire.

Specialization and Promotion in the Roman Imperial Army
By M. A. Speidel. Courtesy of Academia.edu.

Triumphus
Article by William Ramsay, M.A., Professor of Humanity in the University of Glasgow on pp1163-1167 of William Smith, D.C.L., LL.D.: A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, John Murray, London, 1875. Courtesy of LacusCurtius copyright © William P. Thayer

Roman Triumph
Brief essay on Roman triumphs. Excerpted from UNRV History.

Spolia
Article by William Ramsay, M.A., Professor of Humanity in the University of Glasgow on pp1053-1054 of William Smith, D.C.L., LL.D.: A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, John Murray, London, 1875. Courtesy of LacusCurtius copyright © William P. Thayer

Roman Navy
Brief overview. Excerpted from RedRampant.com

The Roman Navy: Masters of the Mediterranean
Excerpted from HistoryNet.com. This article was written by Richard A. Gabriel and originally published in the December 2007 issue of Military HistoryMagazine.

The Roman Navy: Unsung Champions of the Ancient Seas
Courtesy of Rome Across Europe.

Roman Navy
Brief history of the Roman Navy from the Punic Wars to Late Antiquity. Courtesy of Paralumun New Age Village

The Fleets and Roman Border Policy
By Barbara Pferdehirt. Courtesy of the Navis I Project.

Roman Naval Warfare
Excerpted from the Ancient history Encyclopedia.

Praefectus Classis
William Smith, D.C.L., LL.D.: A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities John Murray, London, 1875. Courtesy of LacusCurtius copyright © William P. Thayer 2002.

The Development of the Roman Navy: A Bibliography.
Thomas P. Roche supplied the bibliography of his Master’s thesis at the University of Vermont (1991) to the readers of he LT-ANTIQ list in February of 1997. Courtesy of Online Bibliographies for Late Antiquity.

Roman Navy
“The Roman Navy operated between the First Punic War and the end of the Western Roman Empire.”

The Roman Navy: Ships, Men & Warfare 350 BC-AD 475
By Michael Pitassi

The Ships of the Roman Fleet
Courtesy of h2g2: The Hitchiker’ s Guide to the Galaxy: Earth Edition.

Roman Warships: Classic Triremes and Quinquiremes
Excerpted from Roman History, Coins, and Technology Back Page

Quadriremes, Quinquiremes, Deceremes & other multumeremes -PART I, The origins of the colossal warships of the Hellenistic Era.
By Periklis Deligiannis. Courtesy of Delving into History.

Quadriremes, Quinquiremes, Deceremes & other multumeremes -PART II, The origins of the colossal warships of the Hellenistic Er
a. By Periklis Deligiannis. Courtesy of Delving into History.

Roman Ships
Courtesy of Naval Encyclopedia: the first online warship museum.

Parts of a Roman Warship
“These were the basic parts of the Roman Quinquireme, an long, slender warship propelled by rowers and on occasion by sail and suited for naval combat on the Mediterranean during Classical times.” Excerpted from Roman History, Coins, and Technology Back Pages.

Roman Naval Power: Raising the Ram
By Ann Natanson. Published in History Today Volume 61 Issue 8 August 2011 .

Roman Navy Ranks
Discussion of command structure of the Roman navy, courtesy of the BBC.

Classis Germania
“The Classis Germanica was a Roman fleet in Germania Superior and Germania Inferior.”. Courtesy of Wikipedia.

Köln-Alteburg
Naval base of the Rhine Fleet. From: Livius: Articles on Ancient History. (Almost) all articles by Jona Lendering © 1996-2009.

Roman naval bases at the Eastern Adriatic
By Anamarija Kurilic. Histria antiqua 21, 2002, 113-122. Courtesy of Academia.edu.

Classis Britannica
“The Classis Britannica (literally, British fleet, in the sense of ‘the fleet in British waters’ or ‘the fleet of the province of Britannia’, rather than ‘the fleet of the state of Britain’) was a provincial naval fleet of the navy of ancient Rome.”. Courtesy of Wikipedia.

The Classis Britannica: What do know about Britain’s regional fleet.
By Simon Elliot. Courtesy of Battle of the Ancients.

The Classis Britannica
“Perhaps the best known of all the of Roman fleets, it was created for the invasion of Britain and saw a long and interesting history out on the fringes of Empire.”. Courtesy of h2g2.

Dutch Find Unique Roman Cargo Ship with Oars
By Lucas van Grinsven. “Dutch archaeologists have discovered a Roman cargo ship equipped with oars, a unique find that explains how imperial Rome defended itself on its Northern frontiers…”

Ravenna Classe site yields the first-ever image of imperial officer
“The first-ever image of a soldier in the Ancient Roman navy has surfaced on 17th September 2005 at the major imperial naval base at Ravenna Classe.” Courtesy of the Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici dell’Emilia-Romagna.

Letters of Sailors in the Roman Navy
Courtesy of John Paul Adams, Department of Modern and Classical Languages & Literatures, CSUN.

Roman Seas: Roman Naval Myths
Excerpted from Roman Seas.

Roman Navy High Command
Excerpted from Weapons and Warfare: History and Hardware of Warfare.

Battle of Lake Regillus: 499 or 496 BC
“Nearby the ancient Lake Regillus (an actual plain just under Rocca Priora) the roman army, under the command of Aulus Postumius Albus Regillensis, despite the outnumbering, defeated the troops of the Latin League, leaded by Tarquinius Superbus and Octavius Mamilius. The defeat of the first and the death of the second will means, for Rome, the end of the kings age, and the beginning of another, new, golden era: the republican one.” Courtesy of Ars Bellica: The Great Battles of History.

Battle of Crustumeria: 493 or 491 BC
“Believing in the chance of take advantage of the first Roman social crises, Sabines, Equi and Volsci simultaneously attack the territories of the City and its allies. Newly appointed Dictator, Manius lead an incredible campaign, on three parallel fronts, which will end with the inconceivable Roman victory near Crustumeria.” Courtesy of Ars Bellica: The Great Battles of History.

Battle of Praeneste: 487 or 485 BC
“Only one-third of the then entire Roman military complex is sufficient to break the resistance of the Ernici, believed responsibles for a series of looting in Roman territory, while the latter were committed against the Volscians. The Battle of Praeneste, which was won by the legionaries under the command of the consul Gaius Aquilio, will force them to accept Roman rule.” Courtesy of Ars Bellica: The Great Battles of History.

Battle of Velletri: 487 or 485 BC
“Thanks to the victory over the Volsci, near Velletri, the consul Titus Sicinius, not only obtained a triumph that obscured the simultaneous victory over the Ernici of the fellow Caio Aquilio, but closed the entire campaign for which the two consuls were appointed.” Courtesy of Ars Bellica: The Great Battles of History.

Roman meets Gaul
Courtesy of Weapons and Warfare.

Battle of the Allia, by John Sloan
Courtesy of the Xenophon Group International

Appian’s History of Rome: The Samnite Wars
Article excerpted from Livius: Articles on ancient history. (Almost) all articles by Jona Lendering © 1996-2007.

Timeline of the Samnite Wars
Courtesy of Wikipedia.

The First Samnite War by Gordon Davis
Courtesy of MilitaryHistoryOnline.com. Copyright © 2008 Gordon Davis.

The Second Samnite War by Gordon Davis
Courtesy of MilitaryHistoryOnline.com. Copyright © 2010 Gordon Davis.

The Third Samnite War by Gordon Davis
Courtesy of MilitaryHistoryOnline.com. Copyright © 2015 Gordon Davis.

Samnite Wars
www.sanniti.info © 2010 Arch. David Monaco

Samnite Wars B.C. 324 to 36
“The hill-dwelling Samnites, whose territory covered the vast mountainous regions of central Italy, were the most difficult of Rome’s neighbors to subdue. There were three Samnite Wars which lasted over a period of fifty years. In spite of numerous set backs, each war was concluded on terms that increased Rome’s power and by the end of the third Samnite war, Rome controlled all of central Italy.” Copyright © 2007-2012 Heritage-History | All rights reserved | History

Pyrrhic Wars in Italy BC 280-275
Courtesy of Heritage History

Rome vs. Pyrrhus
Article excerpted from Livius: Articles on ancient history. (Almost) all articles by Jona Lendering © 1996-2007.

Pyrrhic War
Excerpted from UNRV History.

The Eagle at Ausculum: General Pyrrhus of Epirus
Courtesy of Warfare History Network.

Punic Wars BC 261-146
Courtesy of Heritage History.

Ecnomus (256 BC)
Article excerpted from Livius: Articles on ancient history. All content copyright © 1995–2017 Livius.org
. All rights reserved.

The Siege of Syracuse by Polybius.
Translated by Ian Scott-Kilvert, Penguin Books, New York, 1979

The Siege of Syracuse by Livy from Livy’s History of Rome from its Foundation (59 BC-17 AD) .
Translated by Aubrey de Selincourt, Penguin Books, New York, 1965

The Siege of Syracuse from Plutarch’s Parallel Lives: Marcellus.
Translated by Ian Scott-Kilvert, Penguin Books, New York, 1965

The Siege of Syracuse: Introduction.
Courtesy of New York University.

Appian’s History of Rome: The Illyrian Wars
From: Livius: Articles on Ancient History. (Almost) all articles by Jona Lendering ©

Illyrian Wars

First llyrian War, 230-228 BC.
Excerpted from Military History Encyclopedia on the Web

Second Illyrian War, 219 BC.
Excerpted from Military History Encyclopedia on the Web

The Roman Navy: The First and Second Illyrian Wars, and incidental operations (241-219 BCE)
Dan Diffendale

Cornelius Nepos: Hamilcar
Translated by the Rev. John Selby Watson, MA.

Ancient History Sourcebook: Polybius (c.200-after 118 BCE): The Character of Hannibal
From: Polybius, The Histories of Polybius, 2 Vols., trans. Evelyn S. Shuckburgh (London: Macmillan, 1889), I.582-586. Scanned by: J. S. Arkenberg, Dept. of History, Cal. State Fullerton. Prof. Arkenberg has modernized the text. Courtesy of the Internet Ancient History Sourcebook.

Cornelius Nepos: Hannibal
Translated by the Rev. John Selby Watson, MA.

Cornelius Nepos: Hannibal
Courtesy of Navicula Bacchi. In Latin

Lake Trasimene (217 BCE)
From: Livius: Articles on Ancient History. (Almost) all articles by Jona Lendering ©

Classic Battle Joined by Greg Yocherer
“As Hannibal met Rome’s strongest army at Cannae, Rome’s vaunted tenacity and soldiery were expected to prove decisive despite the Carthaginians’ recent victories.” Article from Military History magazine.

Polybius (c.200-after 118 BCE): The Battle of Cannae, 216 BCE
Polybius, The Histories of Polybius,vol. I. 264-275., trans. Evelyn S. Shuckburgh (London: Macmillan, 1889), pp. 226-230. Courtesy of the Internet Ancient History Sourcebook.

The Battle of Cannae
Excerpted from The Illustrated History of the Roman Empire.

The Battle of Cannae: 216 BC
“The battle of Cannae was the key battle of the Second Punic War and is still considered a masterpiece of military tactic, the most successful example of an encirclement maneuver accomplished by an army numerically inferior to the opponents.” Courtesy of Ars Bellica: The Great Battles of History.

Livy, Book 27: Scipio in Spain. By D. Kent Fonner
Article from Military History magazine. March 1996

Livy, Book 29: Scipio in Africa. By D. Kent Fonner
Article from Military History magazine. March 1996

After avidly studying the tactics of Hannibal, Scipio Africanus eventually bested his Carthaginian adversary. By D. Kent Fonner
Article from Military History magazine.

Second Punic War: Battle of Zama. By Daniel A. Fournie
“The Carthaginian and Roman commanders Hannibal and Scipio both had a solid string of victories to their credit when they met in 202 bc. Only one of them would emerge victorious this time. Article from Historynet.com

The Battle of Zama: 202 BC
“The battle of Cannae was the key battle of the Second Punic War and is still considered a masterpiece of military tactic, the most successful example of an encirclement maneuver accomplished by an army numerically inferior to the opponents” Courtesy of Ars Bellica: The Great Battles of History.

Ancient History Sourcebook: Polybius (c.200-after 118 BCE): The Third Punic War, 149-146 BCE [The Histories, Book XXXVI-XXXIX]
From: Polybius, The Histories of Polybius, 2 Vols., trans. Evelyn S. Shuckburgh (London: Macmillan, 1889), II.499-507, 511-515, 528-530. Courtesy of the Ancient History Sourcebook.

Polybius (c.200-after 118 BCE):Rome at the End of the Punic Wars
From:Polybius, The Histories of Polybius,vol. 6. , trans. Oliver J. Thatcher (Milwaukee: University Research Extension Co., 1907.), pp. 166-193 Courtesy of the Internet Ancient History Sourcebook.

Appian’s History of Rome: The Macedonian Wars
From: Livius: Articles on Ancient History. (Almost) all articles by Jona Lendering © 1996-2009.

Roman Macedonian Wars: 215 to 168 B.C.
Copyright © 2007-2009 Heritage-History. All rights reserved.

First Macedonian War 215-205 BC.
Excerpted from Military History Encyclopedia on the Web

Second Macedonian War 200-196 BC.
Excerpted from Military History Encyclopedia on the Web

Polybius (c.200-after 118 BCE): The Roman Maniple vs. The Macedonian Phalanx
From: Polybius, The Histories of Polybius, 2 Vols., trans. Evelyn S. Shuckburgh (London: Macmillan, 1889), pp. 226-230. Courtesy of the Internet Ancient History Sourcebook.

Polybius, Histories, book 18, How the Romans Fight Against a Phalanx Phalanx,
Courtesy of Perseus Digital Library.

Gladius versus Sarissa Roman legions against Greek pike phalanx by Dimitrios Kitsos
“During the first half of the 2nd century BC the Roman legion confronted the Macedonian phalanx. In most of the engagements – including the major ones at Cynoscephalae, Magnesia and Pydna – the Romans prevailed over their opponents and the Republic emerged as the indisputable Mediterranean power. This essay deals with the causes of the Roman military successes by examining briefly the Macedonian and Roman systems of war and searching for possible other factors that contributed to the defeat of the phalanx” Originally in ANISTORITON: History, Archaeology, ArtHistory Issue E991 of 6 January 1999.

Battle of Cynoscephalae (197 BCE)
From: Livius: Articles on Ancient History. (Almost) all articles by Jona Lendering © 1996-2009.

The Battle of Cynoscephalae: 197 BC
“At the battle of Cynoscephalae, known, in military terms, as the “encounter battle, the legions of Flamininus attack the phalanx of Philip V, while they are still in the deployment phase, routing them.” Courtesy of Ars Bellica: The Great Battles of History.

Cynoscephalae (Rome vs Macedon)
Decisive Battles Video. Courtesy of YouTube

Legion vs Phalanx: Battle of Cynoscephalae
By Syntagma. Courtesy of YouTube

The Third Macedonian War and the Battle of Pydna (168 BC) The Great Conflict which determined the fate of Ancient Greece.
By John Foss

Battle of Pydna: Romans Defeat Macedonians, Legion Triumphs over Phalanx
By Siggurdsson. Courtesy of the AmericanLegion’s Burnpit

Appian’s History of Rome: The Syrian Wars
From: Livius: Articles on Ancient History. (Almost) all articles by Jona Lendering © 1996-2009.

War between Rome and Antiochus III, 192-188 B.C.
Excerpted from Military History Encyclopedia on the Web

The Scythed Chariot
Excerpted from SPQR: Encyclopedia Romana. Copyright 2000, James Grout

The Enslavement of War Captives by the Romans to 146 BC.
Jason Paul Wickham

The Celtiberian War
Excerpted from SPQR: Encyclopedia Romana. Copyright 2000, James Grout

The siege of Numantia: how Scipio Aemilianus conquered the bravest of all cities
By D. B. Campbell. Courtesy of Academia.edu.

Appian’s History of Rome: The Spanish Wars
From: Livius: Articles on Ancient History. (Almost) all articles by Jona Lendering © 1996-2009.

Cimbric Wars: B.C. 112 to 101
Copyright © 2007-2009 Heritage-History. All rights reserved.

War Against the Cimbri and Teutones 113-101 BC
Brief but succinct history of the war.

Servile Wars BC 135-70
Courtesy of Heritage History.

Sources for the Three Slave Revolts
Courtesy of the Internet Ancient History Sourcebook.

King, magician, general…slave: Eunus and the First Servile War against Rome
By Mike Dash. Courtesy of A Blast from the Past.

Sallust’s Catiline and Jugurthine War
The text in translation. Courtesy of Bill Thayer of LacusCurtius.

Jugurthine War 112-105 BC
Courtesy of Heritage History

Sallust, The War with Jugurthia
Translated by J. C. Rolf. Courtesy of Lexundria.

Appian’s History of Rome: The Numidian War
From: Livius: Articles on Ancient History. (Almost) all articles by Jona Lendering © 1996-2009.

A Succession of Sieges: Marius and the war with Jugurtha

By D. B. Campbell. Courtesy of Academia.edu.

Roman- Persian Wars
By By Barry S. Strauss. Article from The Quarterly Journal of Military History. Volume12 Number1 Autumn 1999.

Ancient History Sourcebook: Mithridates & The Roman Conquests in the East, 90-61 BCE
From: William Stearns Davis, ed., Readings in Ancient History: Illustrative Extracts from the Sources, 2 Vols. (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1912-13), Vol. II: Rome and the West, pp.118-120, 123-127. Courtesy of the Internet Ancient History Sourcebook.

Caesar’s Commentaries on the Gallic and Civil Wars: with the Supplementary Books attributed to Hirtius.
From the Electronic Text Center at the University of Virginia.

The Battle of Alesia: September 52 BC
“At the siege of Alesia, Vercingetorix’s defeat causes the end of gaul civilization and began the establishment of the neo-Latin culture and Provencal French.”. Courtesy of Ars Bellica: The Great Battles of History.

Alesia (52 BCE)
From: Livius: Articles on Ancient History. All content copyright © 1995–2016 Livius.org. All rights reserved.

The African Wars By Julius Caesar.
Translated by W. A. McDevitte and W. S. Bohn. From Internet Classics Archive.

The Alexandrian Wars By Julius Caesar.
Translated by W. A. McDevitte and W. S. Bohn. From Internet Classics Archive.

The Civil Wars By Julius Caesar.
Translated by W. A. McDevitte and W. S. Bohn. From Internet Classics Archive.

The Spanish Wars By Julius Caesar.
Translated by W. A. McDevitte and W. S. Bohn. From Internet Classics Archive.

Gaius Julius Caesar’s African Campaign: The Campaign to Destroy the Allies of Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus
By Jonas Goldstein and originally published in the June 2006 issue of Military History magazine. Courtesy of HistoryNet.com.

Pharsalia (aka “The Civil War”) By Lucan (Marcus Annaeus Lucanus) A.D. 39 – A.D. 65
“The text of this edition is based on that published as The Pharsalia of Lucan, as translated by Sir Edward Ridley (Longmans, Green, and Co., London, 1896).” Courtesy of the Online Medieval and Classical Library Release #16b.

Roman-Persian Wars: Battle of Carrhae
Courtesy of HistoryNet.com.

The Battle of Carrhae
Excerpted from SPQR: Encylopaedia Romana. © Copyright James Grout 1997-2010.

The Battle of Carrhae–How Crassus’ Mesopotamian Gambit Cost Rome Five Legions
Courtesy of Military History Now

The Battle of Carrhae, 53 B. C.
Excerpted from the Gates of Nineveh.

Siege of Dyrrhachium (49/48BCE)
Article excerpted from Livius: Articles on ancient history. All content copyright © 1995–2017 Livius.org. All rights reserved.

Caesar’s War in Pontus (47 B. C. E.)
Courtesy of Weapons and Warfare.

The battle of Zela
Article excerpted from Livius: Articles on ancient history. (Almost) all articles by © Jona Lendering for Livius.Org, 2005 Revision: 6 November 2007

Mark Antony’s Persian Campaign:
The Roman general’s fate was, like so many before and after him, sealed by a campaign in Iran. By Glenn Barnett. Courtesy of HISTORYNET.COM

The Role of the Navy in Octavian’s Illyrian War
By Marjea Šašel Ko. Courtesy of academia.edu

The Actium Project 1997: A Research Project of The University of South Florida and The Greek Ministry of Culture.
“In the summers of 1993 and 1994, a team of American and Greek researchers scanned the ocean depths where, 20 centuries before, Mark Antony and Cleopatra fought Octavian for control of the Mediterranean world. Using computer, video and remote-sensing technology, Project members hoped to locate on the sea floor actual physical evidence from the battle. Our expectations were based on various threads of evidence that suggest 60 or more bronze warship rams plummeted to the bottom during the course of the battle on September 2, 31 B.C.”

The Naval Battle of Actium
From: Livius: Articles on Ancient History. (Almost) all articles by Jona Lendering © 1996-2009.

Did Cleopatra really lose the Battle of Actium?
Copyright © 1998-2014 HowStuffWorks, a division of InfoSpace LLC.

Agrippa and the Roman Navy
Excerpted from Cog and Galley.

Actium, Allies, and the Augustan Auxilia: reconsidering the transformation of militarystructures and foreign relationsin the reign of Augustus.
By Michael Alexander Speidel. Courtesy of academia.edu

Victory of Arminius over the Roman Legions under Varus, A.D. 9.
Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World from Marathon to Waterloo According to Edward Sheperd Creasy. Chapter V.

The battle in the Teutoburg Forest
An excellent overview of ancient sources on the battle and reconstruction of the events based on the archaeological and documentary sources. © Jona Lendering for Livius.Org, 2003 Revision: 23 July 2006

Paterculus on the Battle in the Teutoburg Forest
In his Roman History, the Roman officer-historian Velleius Paterculus (20 BCE – after 30 CE) has included a description of the battle in the Teutoburg Forest (September 9 CE). All content copyright © 1995–2018 Livius.org. All rights reserved.

Kalkriese Die Örtlichkeit der Varusschlacht: Ein studentisches Projekt an der Universität Osnabrück
An excellent overview of the Clades Variana in German.

Clades Variana: Die Varusschlacht
“Herzlich Willkommen lieber Besucher dieser Webseite. Vielleicht sind sie auch ein Sucher nach dem wahren Ort der Clades Variana. An dieser Stelle erwartet sie eine der umfangreichsten Aufarbeitungen über die Varusschlacht.”

The Battle of Teutoburg Forest
Excerpted from SPQR: Encylopaedia Romana. © Copyright James Grout 1997-2010.

The Ambush that Changed History
By Fergus M. Bordewich. Smithsonian Magazine, September 2006.

Battle of the Teutoburg Forest
Courtesy of Wikipedia

Augustus’ Military Achievements
By Herbert W. Benario. Excerpted from De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families.

Cn. Domitius Corbulo and the Parthian War
Courtesy of the Internet Ancient History Sourcebook.

How to Fight an Elusive Enemy
By Jakub Grygiel. “The problem of targeting an enemy that avoids battles is not new. Consider, for example, the Roman Empire’s 1st-Century war against Tacfarinas in North Africa.”

Roman-Bosporan War
Courtesy of Wikipedia.

Batavian Revolt
Courtesy of Livius.org: Articles on Ancient History. All content copyright © 1995–2017 Livius.org. All rights reserved.

Josephus (37- after 93 CE): The Roman Army in the First Century CE
From: Flavius Josephus: The Jewish War. III.5-6, trans. William Whiston. Courtesy of the Internet Ancient History Sourcebook.

Jewish-Roman wars
Courtesy of Wikipedia.

Josephus The Jewish War
Available in both Greek and English versions. Courtesy of the Perseus Project at Tufts University.

Flavius Josephus Wars of the Jews
“This work was translated by William Whiston and edited by the folks at Sage Software, who offer these works, as well as hundreds of ancient and modern authors, on CD from www.sagelibrary.com. (I am not associated with Sage Software, but left the plug for their CD in place because it is from their production of the text that my work here is based.) HTML conversion was performed from RTF and Microsoft Word sources locally.”

Map of The Siege of Jerusalem
Courtesy of the Peterist Archive

Josephus (37- after 93 CE): An Imperial Triumph, 71 CE
From: Flavius Josephus: VII. 3-7, trans. William Whiston. Courtesy of the Internet Ancient History Sourcebook.

Rome’s Dacian Wars: Domitian, Trajan, and Strategy on the Danube, Part I
By Everett L. Wheeler. Courtesy of Academia. edu

Rome’s Dacian Wars: Domitian, Trajan, and Strategy on the Danube, Part II
By Everett L. Wheeler. Courtesy of Academia. edu

Trajan’s Column: A Record of the Dacian Campaign and a Monument to Logistics
Courtesy of Lacus Curtius by Bill Thayer.

The McMaster Trajan Project, 1999.
“This is a site for exploring the Column of Trajan as a sculptural monument. The core of the site is a searchable database of over 500 images focusing on various aspects of the design and execution of the column’s sculptural decoration. These images (slides and drawings) were generated by and for sculptor Peter Rockwell, over the course of his study of Roman stone-carving practices. The aim of this site is to make these images available to the widest possible public, in a form that can contribute both to ongoing study by specialists and to enjoyment and appreciation of the monument by the general public.”

Conquest and Fall of Dacia 89-272 A. D.
Courtesy of Heritage History

Arrian’s Array against the Alans
From:”One of the most interesting and important sources for the battle tactics of the imperial Roman army is the essay written by Flavius Arrianus detailing his plans as governor of Cappadocia to lead a Roman army against a threatened invasion by Alanic tribesmen, known either as the Ektaxis kata Alanoon or as Acies contra Alanos. This is one of the very rare sources in which the marching and battle formation of the Roman army is described in some detail , though unfortunately for the modern reader a lot of interesting information is nevertheless left out. The description of the marching order can be compared with those in other works from Antiquity, like the Caesarian corpus and the Jewish War providing a number of similarities as well as differences. The description of the battle order on the other hand is much harder to compare given the very general terms in which Roman battle arrays are described in surviving works. Some aspects of Arrian’s battle deployment can however also be identified in other depictions of the Roman army at war. On this page both the transliterated Greek text, an English translation and explanatory comments are provided with notes and links of interest.” Copyright Sander van Dorst 2000/2001/2002.

Arrian and the ‘kontos’
By Robert Vermaat . Courtesy of Fectio:Dutch Late Roman Re-enactment Society.

Marcomannic Wars
Courtesy of Wikipedia.

Visigoth Wars 251-410 A. D.
Courtesy of Heritage History

Aspects of the Severn Field Amy: The Praetorian Guard, Legio II Parthica and Legionary Vexillations AD 193-238.
By Ross H Cowan. Courtesy of the University of Glasgow Enlighten: Theses

An Overview of the Sassanian Persian Military by Chris Cornuelle ©1996
This paper originally appeared in a 1996 issue of Spearpoint, and will appear in a 1997 issue of Slingshot. “In this article I will take a fresh look at topics of interest to wargamers, namely command and control, the famous cavalry, the hidden sinfantry, and various allies and vassals.”

Buried Soldiers may be Victims of Ancient Chemical Weapons
Courtesy of LiveScience.

The Death of Dura-Europos
Excerpted from the Zenobia Empress of the East.

Petition to the Emperor Philip, On Official & Military Extortion, 246 CECE
From:Petition of the Araguenians and Rescript of the Emperor Philip [r. 243-249 CE] on Official & Military Extortion, 246 CE. Courtesy of the Internet Ancient History Sourcebook.

The Later Roman Army-An Overview
Excerpted from the Roman Military Research Society.

The Late Roman Army
Detailed overview courtesy of Wikipedia.

The Late Roman Army
Excepted from the Roman Army Page.

The compilation ‘notitia dignitatum’ (Cnd)
“The compilation of lists and 89 pictures which begins with the item notitia dignitatum omnium tam civilium quam militarium in partibus orientis and ends with the item ceteri praesides ad similitudinem praesidis dalmatiae officium habent”

Notitia Dignitatum (Register of Dignitaries), c. 400
“The Notitia Dignitatum is an official listing of all ancient Roman civil and military posts. It survives as a 1551 copy of the now-missing original and is the major source of information on the administrative organization of the late Roman Empire.” Courtesy of the Medieval Sourcebook.

Notitia Dignitatum
“This pages, contains the text of the Roman document “Notitia Dignitatum”. The document is a list of dignitaries and their areas of responsibility, in the Late Roman Empire, at about 400 AD. It is usually considered to be up to date for the West at about 420, and for the East at around 400. However, no absolute date can be given.” Courtesy of Halstein Sj¿lie.

Notitia Dignitatum
The Notitia in Latin. Courtesy of Bibliotheca Augustana

It’s all in the numbers-The strength of Late Roman armies and units
By Robert Vermaat. Courtesy of Fectio: Dutch Late Roman Re-enactment Society.

Hierarchy in the Late Roman army, 300-550 AD
By Robert Vermaat. Courtesy of Fectio: Dutch Late Roman Re-enactment Society.

Armies, War, and Society in the West, ca.300-ca.600: Late Roman and Barbarian Military organizations and the Fall of the Roman Empire’
by Richard Abel. “The evolution of the Roman military over the fourth and fifth centuries parallels the political, economic, and social changes that occurred in the Empire during this period. Courtesy of Academia. edu

Roman shield patterns of the 3rd century AD
Excerpted from Luke Ueda-Sarson’s Ancient Military Site.

Late Roman Shield Patterns taken from the Notitia Dignitatum
Excerpted from Luke Ueda-Sarson’s Ancient Military Site.

The Draco, the Late Roman military standard
By Robert Vermaat. “The draco Standard was originally developed by the cavalry peoples of the steppes, such as the Sarmatians and the Alans, but also by the Parthians and the Sassanid Persians” Excerpted from Fectio.

Imperial Roman Lanciarii
“This article intends to help clarify the enigmatic nature of imperial Roman lanciarii, about which the consensus of recent opinion seems to be that they were a form of “legionary light infantry”. Excerpted from Luke Ueda-Sarson’s Ancient Military Site.

Scholae – Late Roman elite units
By Robert Vermaat. Courtesy of Fectio: Dutch Late Roman Re-enactment Society.

Military affairs in late antiquity
Bibliography supplied by Hugh Elton (Trinity College).

Late Antiquity in the Mediterranean: The Collapse of the Roman Empire–Military Aspects by Hugh Elton .
Courtesy of the On- line Reference Book for Medieval Studies. Online Encyclopedia. Copyright (C) 1996, Hugh Elton. This file may be copied on the condition that the entire contents, including the header and this copyright notice, remain intact.

Late Antiquity in the Mediterranean: The Late Roman Army by Hugh Elton .
Courtesy of the On- line Reference Book for Medieval Studies. Online Encyclopedia. This file may be copied on the condition that the entire contents, including the header and this copyright notice, remain intact.

Late Antiquity in the Mediterranean: Barbarization” in the Late Roman Army by Hugh Elton.
Courtesy of the On- line Reference Book for Medieval Studies. Online Encyclopedia. This file may be copied on the condition that the entire contents, including the header and this copyright notice, remain intact.

The Siege of Amida in 359 by Ammianus Marcellinus
“Ammianus Marcellinus was an army officer of Greek origin who left a history of the wars and conflicts that beset the Roman Empire in the latter half of the fourth century.Although he is more famous for his account of the Battle of Adrianople, where Emperor Valens was defeated and killed, another interesting portion of his work concerns the siege of Amida, in which Ammianus took part in defending the city from a Persian invasion.Ê This section begins with Ammianus, an officer under the command of the General Ursicinus, on his way to the city of Samosata after hearing reports of enemy movements.” From Ammianus Marcellinus, translated by John Rolfe (London, 1935). Courtesy of De Re Militari: The Society for Medieval Military History.

The Siege of Amida: Ammianus Marcellinus Roman Antiquities Book XIX
The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus translated by J.C. Rolfe, published in Vol.I
of the Loeb Classical Library edition, 1935. Courtesy of Bill Thayer of LacusCurtius.

Writing about siege warfare: Ammianus Marcellinus and the 359 siege of Amida
By William Wyeth. Courtesy of Academia. edu.

Ammianus Marcellinus (330-395 CE): The Battle of Hadrianopolis, 378 CE
From: Ammianus Marcellinus, The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus During the Reigns of The Emperors Constantius, Julian, Jovianus, Valentinian, and Valens, trans. C. D. Yonge (London: G. Bell & Sons, 1911), pp. 609-618. Courtesy of the Internet Ancient History Sourcebook.

The Gothic Wars Battle of Adrianople
Courtesy of the WarfareHistoryNetwork.

Battle of Adrianople, 378 C. E.- The Beginning of the Collapse
Posted by Alcibiades | Jul 15, 2017 | Ancient History

The Battle of Adrianople: A Reappraisal
By Robert Eisenberg

Adrianople: Twilight of the Legions
By Barry Jacobsen. Courtesy of the The Deadliest Blogger: Military History Page.

Ammianus, Theodosius and Sallust’s Jugurtha
By Robin Seager Histos, Volume I (1997). “The purpose of this paper is to examine Ammianus’ treatment of the elder Theodosius and to suggest the existence of certain parallels between his account of Theodosius’ suppression of the rising of the Moorish chieftain Firmus (29.5) and an earlier North African war, that waged by Q. Metellus and C. Marius against the Numidian king Jugurtha, narrated in Sallust’ s monograph.”

The Military Institutions of the Romans (De Re Militari)By Flavius Vegetius Renatus
Translated from the Latin by Lieutenant John Clarke Text written in 390 A.D. British translation published in 1767. Copyright Expired. Etext version by Mads Brevik (2001)

Fall of the Western Empire 400-476 AD: Rome -versus-Visigoths, Huns, Vandals
Courtesy of Heritage History.

Procopius of Caesarea: Gaiseric & The Vandal Conquest of North Africa, 406 – 477 CE
From: Procopius, History of the Wars, 7 vols., trans. H. B. Dewing (Cambridge, Mass., and London: Harvard University Press & Wm. Heinemann, 1914; reprint ed., 1953-54), II.23-73. Courtesy of the Internet Ancient History Sourcebook.

Procopius of Caesarea: Alaric’s Sack of Rome, 410 CE By Robin Seager
From: Procopius, History of the Wars, 7 vols., trans. H. B. Dewing (Cambridge, Mass., and London: Harvard University Press & Wm. Heinemann, 1914; reprint ed., 1953-54), II.11-23. Courtesy of the Internet Ancient History Sourcebook.

Attack of the Visigoths
By Jeroen Wijnendaele. Courtesy of Academia.edu.

Medieval Sourcebook: Jordanes: The Battle of Chalôns, 451 CE
Readings in Ancient History: Illustrative Extracts from the Sources, 2 Vols. (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1912-13), Vol. II: Rome and the West, pp. 322-325. Courtesy of the Internet Medieval Source Book. From: William Stearns Davis, ed.,

The Battle of Chalons, A.D. 451.
From: Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World from Marathon to Waterloo According to Edward Sheperd Creasy.Chapter VI. Copyright © 1998 by Pierre Sandboge. All Rights Reserved.

Attila the Hun and the Battle of Chalons by Arther Ferrill
Draft of an article that appeared in a slighty different form in The Quarterly Journal of Military History MHQ.

Stopping Attila: The Battle of Chalons By Richard Gordon
“Flavius Aetius’ confrontation with Attila the Hun in AD 451 is widely regarded as a turning point in history, but it may only have hastened the fall of the Western Roman Empire.” First published December 2003, Military History magazine. Copyright ©2005 All rights reserved.

The Militarisation of Roman Society, 400 – 700 by Edward James
From Military Aspects of Scandinavian Society in a European Perspective AD 1 – 1300. Courtesy of Medievalists.net.

Belisarius’ Bid for Rome by Erik Hildinger
As Byzantine Emperor Justinian revived the Eastern Roman empire, he sent his greatest general west to retake Rome.” Courtesy of De Re Militari: The Society for Medieval Military History. Book Reviews

B. Isaac, The Limits of Empire: The Roman Empire in the East
Reviewed by D.S. Potter

C. R. Whittaker, Frontiers of the Roman Empire: A Social and Economic Study
Reviewed by John Bendix

Susan P. Mattern, Rome and the Enemy. Imperial Strategy in the Principate
Reviewed by Michael Peachin

D. Whitehead, Aineias the Tactician: How to Survive Under Siege
Reviewed by D. Lateiner

A. D. Lee, Information and Frontiers: Roman Foreign Relations in Late Antiquity
Reviewed by D.F. Buck

J. Masters, Poetry and Civil War in Lucan’s ‘Bellum Civile’
Reviewed by Martha Davis

Lucan, Civil War (Trans. S. Braund)
Reviewed by Edward T. Weston

Lucan, De Bello Civili Book II (Ed. E. Fantham)
Reviewed by Catherine Connors

J. Caesar, The Civil War, Books I & II (Ed. J. M. Carter)
Reviewed by Roger T. Macfarlane

Lazenby, J.F.,The First Punic War.
Reviewed by Hugh Elton

Alston, Richard, Soldier and Society in Roman Egypt: A Social History.
Reviewed by Susan Stephens

Southern, P. & K.R. Dixon, The Late Roman Army.
Reviewed by Hugh Elton